Deforestation as one of Major Emerging Environmental Issue - 275 Words

Deforestation as one of the Major Emerging Environmental Issue (Coursework Sample) Content: Effects of DeforestationNameInstitution AffiliationDateIntroductionDeforestation is the act of cutting down trees in forest land to create space economic development. Currently, majority of illegal tree removal is occurring in the Amazon Rain forest. The need for economic development is considered as the main reason for cutting down trees alongside agriculture. Environmental activists and conservationists agree to the fact the deforestation has serious negative impacts on our environment. This paper will discuss some of the major effects of deforestationLoss of biodiversitySeemingly, biodiversity loss due to habitat destruction is the most serious and dramatic effect of deforestation on earth. Data from the National Geographic show that 70% of plant and animal species live in the forests and cannot survive if their homes are destroyed (National Geographic). Forests trees not only provide shelter for wild animals but also help in regulating the temperature that most of the animals need. It is then obvious that, if trees are removed, animals will migrate to other location in search for shelter or may die and eventually become extinct.Disruption of water cycleAccording to the National Geographic, a greater percentage of water in the ecosystem is held within trees and plants (National Geographic). Tree help in regulating water cycle in the sense that, they absorb rain and releases it inform of water vapor. As such, the regulation of water cycle by trees is helpful in controlling the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere (Osman, 2014).Therefore, when trees are cut, there will be less atmospheric water vapor hence the soil becomes dryer.Soil erosionTrees play a major role in anchoring the soil by holding its particles together, thus retaining essential nutrients for sustaining forest life. Therefore, without trees, the top soil is left loose and is prone to erosion by water or wind. Soil erosion is a serious effect of deforestation that causes wate r pollution and threatens the life of aquatic animals in rivers and lakes (Osman, 2014).Low quality of life

Independent Care Paper - 807 Words

Independent Care Paper CJHS/420 Rebecca Howell Independent Care Paper Case management is not a lifetime service. With the lack of funds available for all the clients in need of service often times termination of service is the only option. In this paper we will examine the process a case manager goes through when termination of services occurs. We will also discuss how independent care will help in continued client growth. Termination of services provided by case management can occur for a large variety of reasons. The main goal of a case manager is to provide the client with all the resources available to meet the client’s needs. By the end of the action plan the client should be prepared and skilled enough to continue without†¦show more content†¦Other less desirable outcomes can include termination due to client noncompliance. Once the client’s needs have been established and the resources have been located the case manager must constantly review the progress of the client and determine if continuing case management service is needed. Terminating the relationship is never an easy process; the case manager must carefully create a termination process depending on the client’s level of dependence in him or her. If a client is heavily dependent on the support of the case manager, the need for a gradual decrease in the amount of contact with the client may need to occur before termination. When planning a termination strategy the case manager determine if the client will lose access to the services and resources once the relationship is terminated. While this may not always be the case often times case management services provided through community based waiver programs will be terminated. 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Challenges of Small and Medium Enterprises in Kenya free essay sample

The definition of enterprises according to staff headcount and turnover or balance-sheet total is essential for identifying businesses able to benefit from European Union (EU) programs or policies specifically designed for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) Challenges Facing SMEs in Kenya It is generally recognized that SMEs (Small and Medium Enterprises) face unique challenges, which affect their growth and profitability and hence, diminish their ability to contribute effectively to sustainable development. In this article, the following challenges are briefly discussed: Lack of Managerial Training and Experience, Inadequate Education and Skills, Lack of Credit, National Policy and Regulatory Environment, Technological Change, Poor Infrastructure and Scanty Markets information, lack of Managerial Training and Experience. Many SMEs owners or managers lack managerial training and experience. The typical owner or managers of small businesses develop their own approach to management, through a process of trial and error. As a result, their management style is likely to be more intuitive than analytical, more concerned with day-to-day operations than long-term issues, and more opportunistic than strategic in its concept (Hill 1987). Although this attitude is the key strength at the start-up stage of the enterprise because it provides the creativity needed, it may present problems when complex decisions have to be made. A consequence of poor managerial ability is that SME owners are ill prepared to face changes in the business environment and to plan appropriate changes in technology. Majority of those who run SMEs are ordinary lot whose educational background is lacking. Hence they may not well equipped to carry out managerial routines for their enterprises (King and McGrath 2002). Inadequate Education and Skills Education and skills are needed to run micro and small enterprises. Research shows that majority of the lot carrying out micro and small enterprises in Kenya are not quite well equipped in terms of education and skills. Study suggests that those with more education and training are more likely to be successful in the SME sector (King and McGrath 2002). As such, for small businesses to do well in Kenya, people need to be well informed in terms of skills and management. SMEs in ICT appear to be doing well with the sprouting of many commercial colleges offering various computer applications. Further, studies show that most of those running SMEs in this sector have at least attained college level education (Wanjohi and Mugure, 2008). Lack of Credit Lack of access to credit is almost universally indicated as a key problem for SMEs. This affects technology choice by limiting the number of alternatives that can be considered. Many SMEs may use an inappropriate technology because it is the only one they can afford. In some cases, even where credit is available, the entrepreneur may lack freedom of choice because the lending conditions may force the purchase of heavy, immovable equipment that can serve as collateral for the loan. Credit constraints operate in variety of ways in Kenya where undeveloped capital market forces entrepreneurs to rely on self-financing or borrowing from friends or relatives. Lack of ccess to long-term credit for small enterprises forces them to rely on high cost short term finance. There are various other financial challenges that face small enterprises. They include the high cost of credit, high bank charges and fees. The scenario witnessed in Kenya particularly during the climaxing period of the year 2008 testifies the need for credit among the common and low earning entrepreneurs. Numerous money lenders in the name of Pyramid schemes came up, promising hope among the ‘lit tle investors,’ that they can make it to the financial freedom through soft borrowing. The rationale behind turning to these schemes among a good number of entrepreneurs is mainly to seek alternatives and soft credit with low interest rates while making profits. Financial constraint remains a major challenge facing SMEs in Kenya (Wanjohi and Mugure, 2008). National Policy and Regulatory Environment The national policy and regulatory environment has an important impact on technology decisions at the enterprise level. The structural adjustment programs (SAPs) implemented in many African countries are aimed at removing heavy policy distortions, which have been viewed as detrimental to the growth of the private sector. SAPs tend to severely affect vulnerable groups in the short run and have been associated with the worsening living conditions in many African countries (USAID 1991). The findings in the study by Wanjohi and Mugure (2008) indicate that business environment is among the key factors that affect the growth of MSEs. Unpredictable government policies coupled with ‘grand corruption,’ high taxation rates, all continue to pose great threat, not only to the sustainability of SMEs but also to the Kenyan economy that was gaining momentum after decades of wastage during KANU era. Technological Change Change of technology has posed a great challenge to small businesses. Since the mid-1990s there has been a growing concern about the impact of technological change on the work of micro and small enterprises. Even with change in technology, many small business entrepreneurs appear to be unfamiliar with new technologies. Those who seem to be well positioned, they are most often unaware of this technology and if they know, it is not either locally available or not affordable or not situated to local conditions. Foreign firms still remain in the forefront in accessing the new technologies. In most of the African nations, Kenya inclusive, the challenge of connecting indigenous small enterprises with foreign investors and speeding up technological upgrading still persists (Muteti, 2005). There is digital pide between the rural and urban Kenya. With no power supply in most of the rural areas, it is next to impossible to have Internet connectivity and access to information and networks that are core in any enterprise. Thus technological change, though meant to bring about economic change even among the rural lot, does not appear to answer to the plight of the rural entrepreneurs. Poor Infrastructure Poor infrastructures pose a major challenge to small enterprises in Kenya. In Kenya, the provision of better infrastructures has lagged behind over years. There are poor roads, inadequate electricity supply. According to the proceedings of the National Investment Conference, November 2003, Kenya still stands in need of better infrastructures. It has been the pledge NARC government (when it took over from KANU in 2002) to improve the infrastructures, but there is yet much to be done. Scanty Markets Information (information asymmetry) Lack of sufficient market information poses a great challenge to small enterprises. Despite the vast amount of trade-related information available and the possibility of accessing national and international databases, many small enterprises continue to rely heavily on private or even physical contacts for market related information. This is due to inability to interpret the statistical data (Muteti, 2005) and poor connectivity especially in rural areas. Since there is vast amount of information and only lack of statistical knowledge to interpret and Internet connectivity, small enterprises entrepreneurs need to be supported. With connectivity being enhanced (by connecting Kenya globally through Fiber Optic Cable project) there is renewed hope for the SMEs. Conclusion and Recommendations One major question we should pose is: what solution can be offered to the plight of small enterprises in Kenya? For one, policies should aim to encourage and promote the development of local technologies. Emphasis should be on the promotion of the local tool industry to reduce reliance on imports. SMEs are said to face a liability of smallness. Because of their size and resource limitations, they are unable to develop new technologies or to make vital changes in existing ones. Still, there is evidence that SMEs have the potential to initiate minor technological innovations to suit their circumstances. However, for SMEs to fully develop and use this potential, they need specific policy measures to ensure that technology services and infrastructure are provided. Further, research and development institutions that are publicly funded should be encouraged to target the technology needs of SMEs. Secondly, the problem of access to information may be attributed to the inadequacy of SME support institutions. This points to the need for a supportive policy to encourage the establishment of documentation centers and information networks to provide information to SMEs at an affordable price. Thirdly, the government should come up with training centers for training managerial and technical courses for the small enterprises entrepreneurs. Equally, there should be business information centers. Fourthly, government should come up with proper regulatory policies that are small enterprises friendly since many of what we have in Kenya, frustrates every effort of a junior entrepreneur. The policies we have seem to care for the well-established businesses. Since majority of small enterprises lack finance, government should establish friendly small loaning system. This would include low interests rates to ensure the continuity of these businesses. SMEs have the potentiality of transforming the economy of a crippling nation. As such, every effort should be made to boost their growth. By Anthony M. Wanjohi Wanjohi is an experienced Researcher (education and social sciences), Educator, and an Author. He is qualified in both natural and social sciences. He holds postgraduate diplomas, one in education and another in projects management (both from The Catholic University of Eastern Africa CUEA), a bachelors degree in Biology (Madras University, INDIA), diplomas in software engineering (INDIA) and philosophy and Religion (Tanzania). He is the Director of Research and Projects with Kenya Projects Organization (KENPRO); an author with Jomo Kenyatta Foundation and an online academic writer with uvocorp. com and essaywriters. net His experience in research, training and projects management spans over a decade. He has command in a wide range of fields: data analysis, project planning, implementation and evaluation, strategic planning, grant proposal writing, web and graphic designing, among others.

Information and Media Imperialism Essay Example

Information and Media Imperialism Essay New imperialism Information and media imperialism? n Christian Fuchs University of Salzburg, Austria ABSTRACT This article explores whether contemporary society can be characterized as demonstrating a new form of the Marxist notion of imperialism and as informational/ media imperialism. In an attempt to answer this question, I employ Vladimir Lenin’s analysis of imperialism. Paying particular attention to the relevance of media and information, I test Lenin’s theories against macroeconomic statistical analysis of existing data. My analysis is structured according to Lenin’s five characteristics of imperialism: (1) the role of economic concentration; (2) the dominance of finance capital; (3) the importance of capital export; (4) the spatial stratification of the world as result of corporate dominance; and (5) the political dimension of the spatial stratification of the world. The results demonstrate that Lenin’s theories should be reloaded for contemporary media and communication studies. KEY WORDS communication n globalization n Lenin n media n new imperialism Introduction In recent years, the notions of imperialism and capitalist empire have gained importance in critical globalization studies. This discourse forms the background and context for this paper. In the 20th century, the notion of imperialism has been primarily advanced by Marxist theorists, such as the classical theories of imperialism (Nikolai Bukharin, Karl Kautsky, Vladimir Lenin, Rosa Luxemburg, etc. ). Within this context, thi s paper deals with the question: Is the new imperialism an informational imperialism? My goal is to make a contribution to the new imperialism debate rom an information-, media- and communication-studies perspective. The notion of imperialism employed is Lenin’s classical one, so the task becomes to analyse the role of the media in a contemporary reactualization of Lenin’s notion of imperialism. The main section of the paper is structured according to the Global Media and Communication [1742-7665(2010)6:1] Volume 6(1): 33–60 Copyright  © 2010 SAGE Publications (Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore and Washington DC: http://gmc. sagepub. com)/10. 1177/1742766510362018 33 34 We will write a custom essay sample on Information and Media Imperialism specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Information and Media Imperialism specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Information and Media Imperialism specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Global Media and Communication 6(1) sequence of the five characteristics of imperialism employed by Lenin (1917). Each of these sections discusses the question if a specific quality of imperialism is topical. The interest in Lenin’s theory is analytical and grounded in the recently emerging academic debate on the role of Lenin’s theory today (cf. e. g. Budgen et al. , 2007; Lih, 2005; Zizek 2004a). Contemporary theories of imperialism, empire and global capitalism can be categorized on a continuum that describes the degree of novelty of imperialism. At one end of the continuum there are authors who argue that imperialism no longer exists today and that a post-imperialistic empire has emerged. The stress is on discontinuity (e. g. Hardt and Negri, 2000, 2004; Negri, 2008; Panitch and Gindin, 2004, 2005; Robinson, 2004, 2007; for a discussion of Hardt and Negri see Buchanan and Pahuja, 2004; Callinicos, 2003b, 2007: 345; Laffey and Weldes, 2004; Zizek, 2004b). At the other end of the continuum there are authors who argue that contemporary capitalism is just as imperialistic as imperialism 100 years ago or that it has formed a new imperialism. The stress is on continuity (Callinicos, 2003a, 2003b, 2005, 2007; Harvey, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007; Wood, 2003; Zeller, 2004a, 2000b). A middle ground is the assumption that imperialism has re-emerged and been qualitatively transformed, that through capitalist development and crisis new qualities of capitalism have emerged and others been preserved, and that the new qualities on the one hand constitute a return to capitalist imperialism, but that on the other hand there are aspects of imperialism today that are different from the imperialism that Lenin, Luxemburg, Kautsky and Bukharin described 100 years ago (O’Byrne, 2005; Sklair, 2002). For Lenin, there are five characteristics of imperialism: 1) The concentration of production and capital developed to such a stage that it creates monopolies which play a decisive role in economic life. 2) The merging of bank capital with industrial capital, and the creation, on the basis of ‘finance capital’, of a financial oligarchy. 3) The export of capital, which has become extremely important, as distinguished from the export of commodities. 4) The formation of international capitalist monopolies which share the world among themselves. ) The territorial division of the whole world among the greatest capitalist powers is completed. (Lenin, 1917: 237) Lenin defined imperialism as: capitalism in that stage of development in which the domination of monopolies and finance capital has established itself; in which the export of capital has acquired pronounced importance; in which the division of the world among the international trusts has begun: in which the division of a ll Fuchs New imperialism 35 the territories of the globe among the biggest capitalist powers has been completed. (Lenin, 1917: 237) Lenin gave close attention to the empirical data that was available at his time. He undertook ‘enormous preparatory work’ (Labica, 2007: 223) for his work on imperialism that is documented in his 21 ‘Notebooks on Imperialism’ (Lenin, 1912–1916), which contain notes on 150 books and 240 articles. To re-engage with Lenin’s theory of imperialism today should therefore be an examination and update of his theoretical arguments and the support of these arguments by data in the same empirical rigour that Lenin showed in his own work and that contemporary works unfortunately frequently lack. Updating Lenin can be undertaken by substituting ‘for the data he presented what we have available today’ (Labica, 2007: 232). To repeat and reload Lenin today means ‘to retrieve the same impulse in today’s constellation’ (Zizek, 2004a: 11; see also Budgen et al. , 2007: 1–4). This also means to take Lenin as a theoretical and methodological impulse for contemporary critical globalization studies. The connection of imperialism and the information sector is not specific for new imperialism. So, for example, Boyd-Barrett has shown that already in the 19th and early 20th century the big news agencies Havas, Reuters and Wolff ‘were based in imperial capitals’ and their expansion ‘was intimately associated with the territorial colonialism of the late nineteenth century’ (Boyd-Barrett, 1980: 23). At the time of Lenin, they served as government propaganda arms in the First World War (Boyd-Barrett and Rantanen, 1998: 7). For example, Reuters ‘was for the most part the unofficial voice of the Empire, giving prominence to British views’ (Thussu, 2006: 11). Winseck and Pike (2007) show with the example of the global expansion of cable and wireless companies (such as e. g. Western Union, Eastern Telegraph Company, Commercial Cable Company, Atlantic Telegraph Company or Marconi) in the years 1860–1930 that at the time of Lenin there was a distinct connection between communication, globalization, and capitalist imperialism. The growth of a worldwide network of fast cables and telegraph systems, in tandem with developments in railways and steamships, eroded some of the obstacles of geography and made it easier to organize transcontinental business. These networks supported huge flows of capital, technology, people, news, and ideas which, in turn, led to a high degree of convergence among markets, merchants, and bankers. (Winseck and Pike, 2007: 1) 2 The new imperialism and the information economy In the next five subsections, I will analyse which role information industries play in each of the five characteristics of imperialism today. The sequence of discussion is structured according to Lenin’s five qualities of imperialism. 36 Global Media and Communication 6(1) 2. The concentration of capital in the information sector The enormous growth of industry and the remarkably rapid process of concentration of production in ever-larger enterprises represent one of the most characteristic features of capitalism. (Lenin, 1917: 178) Lenin identified an antagonism between competition and monopoly as an immanent feature of capitalism (Lenin, 1917: 180, 185, 236, 260ff. ). The formation of monopolies and the concentration of capita l are for Lenin not an exception from the rule of competition, but a necessary outcome of capitalist competition. Concentration indicators that Lenin used included: the development of the number of large enterprises; the share of workers in the economy that are employed by large enterprises; and the share of output in an industry that is produced by large enterprises. One way in which industries become more concentrated is through mergers and acquisitions (MA). Figure 1 shows that the finance sector accounted for the largest share of the mergers and acquisitions (MA) in 2006: 24. per cent (1717) of all MA, whereas the transport, storage and communication sector accounted for 5. 4 per cent (379) of all MA and the printing and publishing industries accounted for 2. 0 per cent (142). All of these sectors have experienced dramatic rises in the number of MA, but the largest and most rapid increase is in finance, which is an indication that finance is the most heavily concentrated sector. Figure 1 Total number of mergers and acquisitions in selected industries Source: Author’s figures based on UNCTAD data. Fuchs New imperialism 37 Figure 2 Share of the number of large corporations (gt;250 employees) in total number of corporations (EU27 countries) Source: Author’s calculations based on Eurostat. Within the framework of the study of capital concentration, one can analyse the concentration of information sectors. Large informationproducing companies, which are those firms that have more than 250 employees, make up only a small share of the overall number of information companies in the EU27 countries (Figure 2). In information-producing branches, a small number of large companies accounts for a large share of the total employees, total turnover and total value added. These shares are higher than in industry and services in general for most information branches. This applies especially in the areas of post/ telecommunications and the manufacturing of communication equipment (Figures 3, 4, 5). In post and telecommunications, large companies make up 0. 9 per cent of all companies and account for 87. 8 per cent of all employees, 87. 2 per cent of total turnover, and 91. per cent of total value added. In the manufacturing of communication equipment, large companies make up 1. 6 per cent of all companies and account for 65. 5 per cent of all employees, 84. 1 per cent of total turnover, and 76. 8 per cent of total value added. A high concentration of information industries is not only specific for Europe, but can also be found in the United States (Figure 6). In the entire US media sector, there we re 330 large corporations (gt;1000 employees), which accounted for 0. 01 per cent of all media corporations in 2002, but controlled 78 per cent of all revenues. In the telecommunications sector, 72 large corporations made up 0. 9 per cent of all companies in the industry, but controlled 88 per cent of all sector-wide revenues. 38 Global Media and Communication 6(1) Figure 3 Share of large companies (gt;250 employees) in total employees (EU27) Source: Author’s calculations based on Eurostat. Figure 4 Share of turnover by large companies (gt;250 employees) in EU27 countries Source: Author’s calculations based on Eurostat. Information industries are not the only ones that are highly concentrated. So for example in the EU27 countries, value added is very highly concentrated in the mining of coal and lignite and the extraction of peat (large companies account for 4. 9 per cent of all companies and for 92. 9 per cent of sectoral value added), the manufacture of tobacco products (20% are large companies and account for 93. 7% of value added in the industry), and the manufacture of coke, refined petroleum products and nuclear fuel (9. 9% are large companies and account for 93. 1% of sectoral value added) (data for 2005, Eurostat). Fuchs New imperialism 39 Figure 5 Share of value added (at factor cost) controlled by large companies (gt;250 employees) in EU27 countries. Source: Author’s calculations based on Eurostat. Figure 6 Media concentration in the USA Source: Author’s calculations based on US 2002 Economic Census 40 Global Media and Communication 6(1) Information sectors, such as publishing, telecommunications and the manufacturing of communication equipment, do not form the most concentrated economic sector, but are among the most highly concentrated industries. . 2 Finance capital and information capital [Finance capital] is the bank capital of the few big monopolist banks, merged with the capital of the monopolist combines of manufacturers. (Lenin, 1917: 237) Under imperialism, finance capital commands: almost the whole of the money capital of all the capitalists and small businessmen and also a large part of the means of production and of the sources of raw materials of the given country and of a number of countries. (Lenin, 1917: 190) The banks’ control of the flow of investment money that is used for operating corporations gives them huge economic power for controlling the capitalist economy (Lenin, 1917: 194). Lenin mentioned that banks are influential in accelerating technical progress (Lenin, 1917: 202). Capital concentration and the formation of finance capital are connected developments (Lenin, 1917: 203). Finance capital aims at generating extraordinarily high rates of profit (Lenin, 1917: 210). A finance oligarchy consisting of rentiers would emerge in imperialism (Lenin, 1917: 213). The indicators that Lenin used for verifying the second characteristic of imperialism, included: development of the percentage of total deposits controlled by banks of a certain size (measured by total controlled capital); development of the number of holdings and establishments of certain banks; development of the number of letters received and dispatched by certain banks; development of the amount of capital held by certain banks; development of the capital invested by certain banks in a country; development of the profit rate of certain banks; and development of the total securities issued by certain banks. How important are information companies in comparison to finance corporations in the world economy? In order to give an answer, I have analysed the 2008 Forbes list of the world’s 2000 biggest companies by economic sectors. The results are presented in Figure 7. Finance companies and financial service corporations together accounted for the vast share of capital assets in 2008 (75. 96%). The second largest sector was oil, gas and utilities (5. 82%). The third largest sector was the information sector (4. 3%), comprised (for statistical reasons) of the following sub-domains: telecommunications; technology hardware and equipment; media content; software; and semiconductors. Fuchs New imperialism 41 5. 82% 4. 63% 1. 96% 1. 51% 1. 48% 1. 36% 1. 29% 0. 97% 75. 96% Finance (Banking, Financials, Insurance) Oil Gas Operations, Utilities Information (Telecommunications, Technology Hardware Equipment, Media, Software Services, Semiconductors) Consumer Durables Food (Food, Drinks Tob acco; Food Markets; Hotel, Restaurants Leisure) Conglomerates Materials Transportation Construction Figure 7 Share of selected industries in total capital assets of the world’s largest 2000 corporations. Source: Author’s figures based on Forbes 2000, 2008 list. Information companies are important in the global capitalist economy, reflecting a trend towards informatization, that is, the rise of the importance of information in economy, but they are far less important than finance and the oil and gas industry. Fossil fuels are still very important in the contemporary economy. This is an indication that industrial society is not over, and that we have entered a hyperindustrial area, in which information production, selling and consumption becomes an important factor of the overall economy, but are still no substitute for the economic importance of finance capital and fossil fuels. Financialization, hyperindustrialization and informatization characterize contemporary imperialist capitalism. The data in Figure 8 are for the year 2007. Data for the year 2008 (Forbes, 2000: list for 2009, available online at Forbes. com), which was the year a new worldwide economic crisis started, show that the financial sector suffered tremendous losses. The world’s biggest 176 diversified financial corporations had combined losses of $46. 27 billion, the world’s 92 largest insurance companies sustained losses of $61. 8 billion. Nonetheless, the financial sector still accounted for 74. per cent of all assets of the world’s 2000 largest corporations, oil, gas and utilities for 6. 2 per cent, and the information economy for 4. 6 per cent. These are only minor changes in comparison to 2007, which shows that the economic crisis did not undermine the inner-capitalist hegemony of financial capital. 42 Global Media and Communication 6(1) 2. 3 Capital export and the information industries Under modern capitalism, when monopolies prevail, the export of capital has become the typical feature. (Lenin, 1917: 215) The goal of imperialism is for Lenin the achievement of high profits by exporting capital to countries in which `capital is scarce, the price of land is relatively low, wages are low, raw materials are cheap (Lenin, 1917: 216). Indicators that Lenin used for verifying the third characteristic of imperialism included the absolute amount of capital invested abroad by certain nations and the geographical distribution of foreign direct investment. What are the most important economic sectors in capital export and the outsourcing of production? In which areas is the economy most globalized? What is the role of the information sector? Figure 8 shows that transport, storage and telecommunications has been the fastest growing sector of foreign direct investment (FDI) in the past 20 years (from 1. 6% to 7. 6% of all FDI inflows). Nonetheless, information industries are not dominant; more important in FDI than transport and communication are the sectors of finance, mining/quarrying/petroleum, and trade. Figure 8 Selected sectors of FDI (inflows). Source: Author’s figures based on data from UNCTAD. Fuchs New imperialism 3 A number of authors have argued that global/transnational media organizations have emerged (Appadurai, 1990/2006; Herman and McChesney, 1997; McChesney, 1999; Rantanen, 2005; Schiller, 1991/2006; Sklair, 2002: 164–207; Sreberny, 1991/2006). Herbert Schiller (1991/2006: 297) speaks in this context of ‘transnational corporate cultural domination’. Edward Herman and Robert McChesney (1997 , see also McChesney 1999: 78–118) argue that global media advance corporate expansion by advertising and create an ideological environment for a global profitdriven social order. Neoliberalism and mergers and acquisitions would have resulted in a tiered global media system dominated by a small number of colossal, vertically integrated media conglomerates (measured by annual sales), such as News Corporation, Time Warner, Disney, Bertelsmann, Viacom, ATT (TCI), Vivendi (Seagram acquired MCA in 1995 and Polygram in 1998 to became the Universal Music Group, which became part of Vivendi in 2000), General Electric (NBC), or Sony (Herman and McChesney, 1997: 52ff. , 72–105; McChesney, 1999: 86ff. ). The main feature of the global media system is, for Herman and McChesney (1997: 152), the global implantation of a model of privately owned commercial media. Possible negative effects would be the global spread of consumption as lifestyle, the displacement of the public sphere with entertainment, the strengthening of conservative political forces, and the erosion of local cultures (Herman and McChesney, 1997: 154ff. ). Other scholars are more sceptical, doubt the emergence of global media, or argue that their existence is a myth (Flew, 2007; Hafez, 2007). Terry Flew (2007: 87) lists data on the foreign asset share, the transnationality index, and the foreign revenue share of Time Warner, Disney, News Corporation and Viacom for the year 2005, in order to argue that ‘media corporations are less globalized than major corporations in other sectors’, globalization of media and entertainment is moving slowly, and that News Corporation is the only truly global media company (Flew, 2007: 87ff. ). This analysis is not convincing because inductive generalizations from data for four companies are not conclusive, the indicators are mainly consumption- and not production-oriented (in contrast to, for example, the share of foreign employees), and other information sectors are not taken into account. Not only media content producers are media companies, but also media infrastructure capital and media technology capital (telecommunications, software, hardware) should be taken into account. Also the internet, the computer, and the mobile phone are media. Colin Sparks (2007: 172–4) analyses the foreign assets and sales of News Corporation and Viacom (for 2002) and Time Warner (for 2004) and argues that global media are ‘centred in a single â€Å"home† country’ (Sparks, 2007: 174). 44 Global Media and Communication 6(1) Table 1 Transnationality index of the world’s largest information corporations Year Top 100 average TNI of all included corporations Information corporations’ average TNI N (Number of information corporations in ranking) 2001 55. % 60. 2% 26 2002 57% 55. 0% 22 2003 55. 8% 55. 3% 21 2004 56. 8% 55. 9% 21 2005 59. 9% 59. 5% 20 2006 61. 6% 61. 7% 18 Source: Calculations based on World Investment Reports 2003–2008. I have analysed the transnationality data that is published in the annual World Investment Report by UNCTAD. UNCTAD’s transnationality index (TNI) measures the global dimension of a company by a composite measure that covers the world largest companies’ shares of assets, sales and employees outside of the home country. Table 1 shows the average TNI of the top 100 corporations listed in the World Investment Reports (UNCTAD, 2003–2008) and the average of information corporations. Information/media corporations are in this context defined as all companies from the domains of computer and related activities, electrical and electronic equipment, media, printing and publishing, and telecommunications. Media content capital and media infrastructure capital have a common referent – information – so summarizing these companies under the category of information corporations or media corporations is feasible. The data show that the TNI of the largest information corporations has in the years 2001–2006 been close to the total average and that the information companies covered by the TNI are more global than local in their operations, which casts doubt on the assumption (made by Flew, Hafez, and others) that there are no global media corporations. Table 2 shows further indicators for the degree of transnationality of information corporations: the average share of foreign ssets in total assets, the average share of foreign sales in total sales, the average share of foreign employment in total employment, and the share of foreign affiliates in total affiliates. The values for the 18 information corporations that are included in the 2006 list of the world’s top 100 TNCs are compared to the total average values for all 100 included companies. For calculating these shares, I treated all companies (and respectively information companies) as a totality (what Marx [1867: 344] termed à ¢â‚¬Ëœcollective capital’) so that the shares were calculated based on aggregated values. Fuchs New imperialism 45 Table 2 Indicators of the degree of transnationality of the world’s largest Information corporations (N = 18) Average of all corporations Foreign assets share Foreign sales share Foreign employment share Foreign affiliates share 61. 39% 64. 35% 60. 48% 69. 38% Information corporations: average 62. 50% 64. 05% 58. 36% 68. 15% Source: Calculations based on data for 2006, World Investment Report 2008 Statistical data suggest that the globalization of media/information corporations is not a myth, as claimed by scholars like Hafez and Flew. There surely is not a purely global media system – as transnational corporations are grounded in their respective national economies. But global production in the form of outsourcing, subcontracting and spatially diffused production seems to be an emergent quality of capitalism and therefore also of information corporations. Indicators such as the transnationality index, the foreign assets share, the foreign sales share, the foreign employment share, and the foreign affiliates share allow measuring the degree of transnationality of information companies. Data for the world’s largest information companies suggest that although they are fairly grounded in national economies, they follow the general trend of TNCs to have the majority of their assets, sales, employment and affiliates located outside of their home countries. This is not a uniform pattern, but a general trend. Emergent qualities are additions to old qualities that transform systems, but do not supersede and eliminate them. Transnationality is not something entirely new; instead – it is a degree, measure and tendency. Globalization of the media is something different from fully global media: certain media corporations become more global, parts of production are outsourced to other countries and parts of sales are achieved in other countries. The degree of sourcing, investment, affiliations, employment, assets, sales and profits outside the home country are indicators for the degree of globalization of a media corporation. That the calculated average shares are close to 60 per cent is an indication not for the emergence of fully global information corporations, but for the globalization of the operations of information corporations. These information TNCs are all capitalist in character, each focuses on capital accumulation on national and transnational levels that are interlinked. 46 Global Media and Communication 6(1) Transnationality is an emergent quality of the informational dimension of new imperialism. Transnationality is not entirely global, but an emergent quality in comparison to Fordist capitalism, in which many corporations were either state owned or rather nationally contained by regulation. Concerning the world’s largest information corporations, corporate structures have become global and ever more influenced by media and information. Media globalization then means that corporatism – the structuration of media organizations according to the logic of capital accumulation and profit maximization – has expanded its worldwide scope. Corporatism rules the world, therefore it also rules media and information organizations, which have increasingly been transformed into media corporations in processes of accumulation by dispossession that transform information and technology into commodities or intensify their commodity character. A further aspect of media globalization is that in the 20th century, global communication networks (telephone, internet) have emerged (Thompson, 1995/2000), which today allow communication and the transmission of information in real time over distance by time–space compression. How important are information products and information services in world trade? Figure 9 shows that fossil fuels are the most important goods in the world trade of manufactured goods, followed by media products, and transport vehicles. Fossil fuels and the car have been characterized as being characteristic for Fordist industrialism or for the third and fourth long wave (Boyer, 1988; Freeman and Perez, 1988; Mandel, 1972/1998), whereas microelectronics is frequently considered as ‘post-industrial’. Concerning world trade, the data show that post-industrialism has not superseded industrialism, the information economy and the traditional industrial economy exist together. The only claim that could be made based on this data is that the structure of world trade is characterized by the dominance of a ‘mobilities paradigm’ – the trade of goods that allows ‘the movement of people, ideas, objects and information’ (Urry, 2007: 17). UNCTAD launched the Creative Economy Database in 2008. The creative economy is defined as consisting of the ‘creation, production and distribution of goods and services that use creativity and intellectual capital as primary inputs’ (UNCTAD, 2008: 13). This includes products in the areas of cultural sites, traditional cultural expressions (arts, crafts, festivals, celebrations), performing arts, audiovisuals, new media, design, publishing and printed media, visual arts, and creative services (architectural, advertising, creative RD, culture, recreation). Figure 10 shows the development of the share of creative industry exports in total Fuchs New imperialism 47 Figure 9 Share of specific product groups in total exported goods. Source: Author’s figures based on data by UNCTAD. exports in the years 1996–2005. Related industries cover supporting industries or equipment, such as media infrastructures. The combination of creative goods (3. 2%), creative services (0. 8%) and related industries (5. 5%) accounted for 9. 55 per cent of world exports in 2005. This again confirms that information products and services are important in world trade, but not more important than fossil fuels and vehicles, and therefore not dominant. Finance, mining/quarrying/petroleum, trade, and information are the most important economic sectors of foreign direct investment. Finance is the dominant sector in both FDI and world trade. Figure 10 Share of creative industries in world exports. Source: Author’s figures based on data by UNCTAD Creative Economy Database. 48 Global Media and Communication 6(1) Transnational information corporations do not operate entirely globally. They are grounded in national economies, but a certain degree of their operations, assets, employees, sales, profits and affiliates are located beyond their home economies so that a national–transnational nexus is established. Transnationality is an emergent quality, a measure, degree and tendency. Media globalization furthermore also means the global influence of the neoliberal logic of accumulation by dispossession on media. In world trade, information goods and services are the second most important category, and transport vehicles the third most important sector. The data indicate that capital export and world trade are not dominated by the information sector, but that financialization, hyperindustrialization by continued relevance of fossil fuels and the car, and informatization are three important economic trends of the new imperialism. Financialization is the dominant factor. 2. 4 The economic division of the world and information corporations Lenin argued that under imperialism, big companies dominate the economy. They would divide among themselves spheres of influence and markets and would make use of cartels, syndicates and trusts. Finance capital struggles ‘for the sources of raw materials, for the export of capital, for â€Å"spheres of influence†, i. e. , for spheres of good business, concessions, monopolist profits, and so on; in fine, for economic territory in general’ (Lenin, 917: 266). Lenin used the following indicators for the fourth characteristic: the number of sub-companies of certain corporations, the development of turnover, the number of employees, and the net profits of specific big companies. Whereas the third characteristic focuses more on economic activities that cross nation-state borders and the economic benefits that are derived from it, the fourth characteristic covers the spatial dimension of these activities. This distinction is indicated by the term ‘division of the world among capitalist combines’ (characteristic four) in contrast to the term ‘the export of capital’ (characteristic three). The two characteristics are nonetheless certainly closely linked. Table 3 shows the share of corporations based in developing and developed countries in the industries that constitute the Forbes 2000 list of the world’s biggest corporations. The share of corporations that have developing countries as their home bases ranges between 0 and 20 per cent, which is

Essay on Modern American HistoryEssay Writing Service

Essay on Modern American HistoryEssay Writing Service Essay on Modern American History Essay on Modern American Historywhy were Martin Luther King Jr.`s two famous addresses known as the â€Å"I Have a Dream Speech† and â€Å"I Have Been to the Mountaintop Speech† given? What is the significance?The mid- 50s of the 20th century are marked with the beginning of the era of Martin Luther King the American priest, fighter for civil rights. King tried to convince everybody in the necessity of nonviolent resistance to racism at a time when many black nationalists were talking about hatred and were ready to fight against all forces of white America. On August 28, 1963 in Washington, King delivered his famous speech I Have a Dream, in which he expressed his belief in the brotherhood of all people, it is still considered a great piece of oratory. After Kings speech, US authorities were forced to take the Civil Rights Act (1964), which prohibited segregation in public places, and then the Voting Rights Act (1965), which gave equal voting rights to African American s. The last in the life of Martin Luther King Jr. speech was Ive Been to the Mountaintop, the end of which referred to the threat of murder. The fighter for rights was killed, but the movement survived and won. Black with white could now go to the same schools and shops, live in same hotels, they were not hunted by dogs and could sit on front seats of the bus.How did America fight the Vietnam War? Do you think this strategy was successful?The Vietnam War is one of the largest wars of the second half of the 20th century. From mid- 1965 to mid- 1969 the US forces conducted a large-scale operations in South Vietnam. The main goal was to find and destroy the larger units and parts of the NLF and the North Vietnamese Army. This strategy of search and destroy was developed by chief of US forces in that period, General William Westmoreland. The General had traditional view of the war, he saw war as the fighting between the major powers. On January 27, 1973, Paris Peace was signed, an agree ment under which American troops withdrew from Vietnam. The war has stirred up public opinion of Americans, and has had a significant impact on Americans. There appeared a new youth movement – hippies, who were protesting against the war.Name and describe two genocides After World War Two and how America reacted to them?The United States of America became the dominant power of the world after the World War II. There are scientists and historians who blame the USA in genocides, which were in Asia in Korea (1950 1953), and in Indochina (1961 1975); and in Africa South Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Congo (Zaire) (1961 1990). The driving force of genocidal behavior is imperialist desire for internal cohesion and external takeovers. Strategy of total war, adopted by the United States invariably led to the mass extermination of peoples. This is explained by the lack of distinction between military and civilian targets. Historians note that resistance to US imperialism is always based on deep-rooted and widespread belief and ideology. The purpose of the invader is to reduce huge reservoirs of popular support for the resistance its potential for mobilization, food and military security.Why were movies like Rocky and Star Wars popular in the late 1970s?In 1976, the movie Rocky appeared on the screen, and became very popular. It was nominated for 10 Oscars. The story about a failed boxer gave the world a movie that confronts hopelessness. It gave people hope for the future, and therefore gained such popularity. No less popular was the movie Star Wars, the critics called it epic of modern times. The film makes its viewers think about the meaning of life. Movie Star Wars reminds people that life is enormous, and its manifestations are endless, and tomorrow can bring something very good. End of 70s was delineated by structural and economic crisis, so keeping faith in a happy future was more relevant than ever.What is Globalization? Do you think that Globalizati on is a good or bad thing for America?The process of global economic, political, cultural and religious integration is called globalization. It is a consequence of the evolution of public market systems. Concept of a global society is becoming increasingly popular in the world scientific community since the beginning of the 21st century. According to this concept, all the people of Earth are citizens of a single global society. As a result of globalization, the world becomes more connected and dependent on all its subjects. Therefore, on the one hand, globalization leads to partial lack of independence; on the other hand, it strengthens the relationship in the world community.

Night owl Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Night owl - Essay Example This however does not negate the fact that good sleeping patterns should not be advocated for. It is not only vital but also health for persons to get the right amount of sleep each day. Much praises has not been languished towards the night owls as the early birds. However, Jacques (Para 3) explains that there are reasons the owl persons to be proud of who they are. She argues that one of the reasons to be proud if an individual is an evening person is that they might be having an IQ that is relatively higher. At the London School of Economics and Political Science, an evolutionary scientist called Satoshi Kanazawa found out the possibility of a connection or relationship between evolutionary adaptive behaviors and intelligence. It is a deviation from what ancestors did. Jacques (Para 4) activities that are routinely nocturnal are evolutionarily novel and were most likely seldom in the ancestral environment. The conclusion of the study revealed that intelligent children have the highest probability of growing up and becoming nocturnal in adulthood by going to bed both on weekends and weekdays late and waking up late. However, despite the fact that their IQ may be higher, the early birds tend to in a slightly better position for success. According to Jacque (Para 5), the second reason for the evening persons to be proud is that they usually benefit from the having strength at night. They have an advantage in terms of physicality in comparison to the morning people. The tests from researchers of the University of Alberta on the strength of legs of both morning and evening persons reveals that while the early birds exhibit consistent strength throughout the day, the night owls strength peaks at night to higher levels. This is attributed to the fact that nocturnal persons shows increase in excitability in the spinal cord and motor cortex. Jacque (Para 6) claims that individuals who tend to work more at night are to be a little more

Targeted Media and Audience Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Targeted Media and Audience - Essay Example It will contain information that is relevant to the press release’s content such as the five W’s (where, who, why, what, when). This paragraph will simply summarize the press release, and provide a hook that appeal to the audience. Body This part will expand on the hook provided in the lead paragraph. It will employ inverted pyramid strategy where the most relevant information and quotes will be provided in the first paragraphs, and less weighty quotes provided in the subsequent paragraphs (American Institute of Architects, 2008 p56). Company Boilerplate This paragraph will provide brief information about Le Tour de Sandwich, including its activities, short history, products and services. Contact Information Name, Title, Phone, Email. Targeted Media and Audience Targeted Media and Audience The targeted audience for the bicycle tour ranges from ages 10 to 80 years. This means that the market is quite large and a detailed press release is required when targeting these cus tomers. It is necessary to prioritize enthusiastic riders more than any other group because they already have more than two rides, and the likelihood that they will register to participate, in the cycling tour, is high (Guffey, 2007 p83). Pro Tour Riders also set the pace for participants who will prefer riding at some considerable speeds. The other major groups to target are teenagers and the old people. Most of the old people will register and join other riders with the aim of exercising and keeping fit. (Stanton, 2007 p122). It is, therefore, apparent that they will turn out, in large numbers, more than other age groups, and register with British Cycling Association. Teenagers, by being the most active group, will highly be willing to participate, in this event. Therefore, it is important to include activities and refreshments they like, during the cycling event (Stanton, 2007 p123). Other people usually prefer participating, in the cycling event as groups. It is, therefore, nece ssary to mention, in the press release that groups such as schools, church organizations, clubs, and other cycling groups are highly considered, in this event. They can come with their own rides, or they can use the event’s rides. Additionally, there are a number of activities that they can participate in (Heath, 2004 p75). Le Tour de Sandwich press release will target a number of media houses both in and outside France. We will primarily target media stations and individual journalists, editor in chiefs, editors, editorial assistants, staff writers, cycling correspondents, bloggers,